Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020  eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning

Glombitza J, Abdul Halim A, Abreu P, Aglietta M, Allekotte I, Almeida Cheminant K, Almela A, Aloisio R, Alvarez-Muniz J, Ammerman Yebra J, Anastasi GA, Anchordoqui L, Andrada B, Andrade Dourado L, Andringa S, Apollonio L, Aramo C, Araújo Ferreira PR, Arnone E, Arteaga Velázquez JC, Assis P, Avila G, Avocone E, Bakalova A, Barbato F, Bartz Mocellin A, Berat C, Bertaina ME, Bhatta G, Bianciotto M, Biermann PL, Binet V, Bismark K, Bister T, Biteau J, Blazek J, Bleve C, Blümer J, Boháčová M, Boncioli D, Bonifazi C, Bonneau Arbeletche L, Borodai N, Brack J, Brichetto Orchera PG, Briechle FL, Bueno A, Buitink S, Buscemi M, Büsken M, Bwembya A, Caballero-Mora KS, Cabana-Freire S, Caccianiga L, Campuzano F, Caruso R, Castellina A, Catalani F, Cataldi G, Cazon L, Cerda M, Čermáková B, Cermenati A, Chinellato JA, Chudoba J, Chytka L, Clay RW, Cobos Cerutti AC, Colalillo R, Coluccia MR, Conceiçao R, Condorelli A, Consolati G, Conte M, Convenga F, Correia Dos Santos D, Costa PJ, Covault CE, Cristinziani M, Cruz Sanchez CS, Dasso S, Daumiller K, Dawson BR, De Almeida RM, De Errico B, De Jesús J, De Jong SJ, De Mello Neto JR, De Mitri I, De Oliveira J, De Oliveira Franco D, De Palma F, De Souza V, De Vito E, Del Popolo A, Deligny O, Denner N, Deval L, Di Matteo A, Do JA, Dobre M, Dobrigkeit C, D'Olivo JC, Domingues Mendes LM, Dorosti Q, Dos Anjos JC, Dos Anjos RC, Ebr J, Ellwanger F, Emam M, Engel R, Epicoco I, Erdmann M, Etchegoyen A, Evoli C, Falcke H, Farrar G, Fauth AC, Fehler T, Feldbusch F, Fenu F, Fernandes A, Fick B, Figueira JM, Filip P, Filipčič A, Fitoussi T, Flaggs B, Fodran T, Fujii T, Fuster A, Galea C, García B, Gaudu C, Gherghel-Lascu A, Ghia PL, Giaccari U, Glombitza J, Gobbi F, Gollan F, Golup G, Gómez Berisso M, Gómez Vitale PF, Gongora JP, González JM, González N, Góra D, Gorgi A, Gottowik M, Guarino F, Guedes GP, Guido E, Gülzow L, Hahn S, Hamal P, Hampel MR, Hansen P, Harari D, Harvey VM, Haungs A, Hebbeker T, Hojvat C, Hörandel JR, Horvath P, Hrabovský M, Huege T, Insolia A, Isar PG, Janecek P, Jilek V, Johnsen JA, Jurysek J, Kampert KH, Keilhauer B, Khakurdikar A, Kizakke Covilakam VV, Klages HO, Kleifges M, Knapp F, Köhler J, Krieger F, Kunka N, Lago BL, Langner N, Leigui De Oliveira MA, Lema-Capeans Y, Letessier-Selvon A, Lhenry-Yvon I, Lopes L, Lu L, Luce Q, Lundquist JP, Machado Payeras A, Majercakova M, Mandat D, Manning BC, Mantsch P, Mariani FM, Mariazzi AG, Mariş IC, Marsella G, Martello D, Martinelli S, Martínez Bravo O, Martins MA, Mathes HJ, Matthews J, Matthiae G, Mayotte E, Mayotte S, Mazur PO, Medina-Tanco G, Meinert J, Melo D, Menshikov A, Merx C, Michal S, Micheletti MI, Miramonti L, Mollerach S, Montanet F, Morejon L, Mulrey K, Mussa R, Namasaka WM, Negi S, Nellen L, Nguyen K, Nicora G, Niechciol M, Nitz D, Nosek D, Novotny V, NoŽka L, Nucita A, Núnez LA, Oliveira C, Palatka M, Pallotta J, Panja S, Parente G, Paulsen T, Pawlowsky J, Pech M, P ©kala J, Pelayo R, Pelgrims V, Pereira LA, Pereira Martins EE, Pérez Bertolli C, Perrone L, Petrera S, Petrucci C, Pierog T, Pimenta M, Platino M, Pont B, Pothast M, Pourmohammad Shahvar M, Privitera P, Prouza M, Querchfeld S, Rautenberg J, Ravignani D, Reginatto Akim JV, Reininghaus M, Reuzki A, Ridky J, Riehn F, Risse M, Rizi V, Rodrigues De Carvalho W, Rodriguez E, Rodriguez Rojo J, Roncoroni MJ, Rossoni S, Roth M, Roulet E, Rovero AC, Saftoiu A, Saharan M, Salamida F, Salazar H, Salina G, Sanabria Gomez JD, Sánchez F, Santos EM, Santos E, Sarazin F, Sarmento R, Sato R, Savina P, Schäfer CM, Scherini V, Schieler H, Schimassek M, Schimp M, Schmidt D, Scholten O, Schoorlemmer H, Schovánek P, Schröder FG, Schulte J, Schulz T, Sciutto SJ, Scornavacche M, Sedoski A, Segreto A, Sehgal S, Shivashankara SU, Sigl G, Simkova K, Simon F, Smau R, Šmída R, Sommers P, Squartini R, Stadelmaier M, Stanič S, Stasielak J, Stassi P, Strähnz S, Straub M, Suomijärvi T, Supanitsky AD, Svozilikova Z, Szadkowski Z, Tairli F, Tapia A, Taricco C, Timmermans C, Tkachenko O, Tobiska P, Todero Peixoto CJ, Tomé B, Torrès Z, Travaini A, Travnicek P, Tueros M, Unger M, Uzeiroska R, Vaclavek L, Vacula M, Valdés Galicia JF, Valore L, Varela E, Vašíčková V, Vásquez-Ramírez A, Veberič D, Vergara Quispe ID, Verzi V, Vicha J, Vink J, Vorobiov S, Watanabe C, Watson AA, Weindl A, Wiencke L, Wilczyński H, Wittkowski D, Wundheiler B, Yue B, Yushkov A, Zapparrata O, Zas E, Zavrtanik D, Zavrtanik M (2025)

Publication Type: Journal article

Publication year: 2025

Journal

Book Volume: 111

Article Number: 022003

Issue: 2

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.111.022003

Abstract

We report an investigation of the mass composition of cosmic rays with energies from 3 to 100 EeV (1 EeV=1018 eV) using the distributions of the depth of shower maximum 𝑋max. The analysis relies on ∼50,000 events recorded by the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and a deep-learning-based reconstruction algorithm. Above energies of 5 EeV, the dataset offers a 10-fold increase in statistics with respect to fluorescence measurements at the Observatory. After cross-calibration using the fluorescence detector, this enables the first measurement of the evolution of the mean and the standard deviation of the 𝑋max distributions up to 100 EeV. Our findings are threefold: (i) The evolution of the mean logarithmic mass toward a heavier composition with increasing energy can be confirmed and is extended to 100 EeV. (ii) The evolution of the fluctuations of 𝑋max toward a heavier and purer composition with increasing energy can be confirmed with high statistics. We report a rather heavy composition and small fluctuations in 𝑋max at the highest energies. (iii) We find indications for a characteristic structure beyond a constant change in the mean logarithmic mass, featuring three breaks that are observed in proximity to the ankle, instep, and suppression features in the energy spectrum.

Authors with CRIS profile

Involved external institutions

University of Nova Gorica / Univerza v Novi Gorici Slovenia (SI) Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) / Free University of Brussels Belgium (BE) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Germany (DE) "Horia Hulubei" National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering IFIN-HH Romania (RO) University of Chicago United States (USA) (US) Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) United States (USA) (US) Pierre Auger Observatory Argentina (AR) Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences / Instytut Fizyki Jądrowej im. Henryka Niewodniczańskiego Polskiej Akademii Nauk Poland (PL) University of Grenoble Alpes (UGA) / Université de Grenoble France (FR) Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen Germany (DE) Université Paris-Saclay France (FR) Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica (CNEA) / National Atomic Energy Commission Argentina (AR) Cardiovascular Research Foundation United States (USA) (US) University of Adelaide Australia (AU) Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) Belgium (BE) National Institute for Nuclear Physics / Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) Italy (IT) Federal Center for Technological Education of Rio de Janeiro (CEFET-RJ) / Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca Brazil (BR) Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (ASCR) / Akademie věd České republiky (AVČR) Czech Republic (CZ) National Autonomous University of Mexico / Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) Mexico (MX) Galician Institute of High Energy Physics / Instituto Galego de Física de Altas Enerxías (IGFAE) Spain (ES) Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN) / National Technological University Argentina (AR) Radboud University Nijmegen Netherlands (NL) Universität Siegen Germany (DE) Univerzita Karlova v Praze / Charles University in Prague Czech Republic (CZ) Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) / Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil (BR) Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) / University of Buenos Aires Argentina (AR) Gran Sasso Science Institute Italy (IT) Rio de Janeiro Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology Brazil (BR) Palacky University Olomouc / Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci Czech Republic (CZ) Bergische Universität Wuppertal Germany (DE) Universität Hamburg (UHH) Germany (DE) Bariloche Atomic Centre / Centro Atómico Bariloche Argentina (AR) Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio (IAFE) Argentina (AR) Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP) / Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla Mexico (MX) Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) / University of Campinas Brazil (BR) University of São Paulo / Universidade de São Paulo (USP) Brazil (BR) Brazilian Center for Physics Research / Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas (CBPF) Brazil (BR) Industrial University of Santander / Universidad Industrial de Santander Colombia (CO) Colorado School of Mines United States (USA) (US) University of Amsterdam Netherlands (NL) University of Leeds United Kingdom (GB) Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie / Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy Germany (DE) Instituto de Física Rosario Argentina (AR) Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Lecce (INFN Lecce) Italy (IT) Instituto Superior Técnico Portugal (PT) Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR) Brazil (BR) National University of La Plata / Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) Argentina (AR) Case Western Reserve University United States (USA) (US) State University of Feira de Santana / Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS) Brazil (BR) Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) United States (USA) (US) Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas (UNACH) Mexico (MX) Michigan Technological University United States (USA) (US) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) / National Scientific and Technical Research Council Argentina (AR) University of Wisconsin - Madison United States (USA) (US) Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo (UMSNH) Mexico (MX) National Institute for Laser, Plasma & Radiation Physics (INFLPR) Romania (RO) Universidade Federal do ABC (UFABC) / Federal University of ABC Brazil (BR) Universidad de Granada Spain (ES) Louisiana State University United States (USA) (US) National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico / Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México Mexico (MX) Federal University of Campina Grande / Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG) Brazil (BR) University of L'Aquila / Università degli Studi dell'Aquila Italy (IT) Sorbonne Université France (FR) Colorado State University United States (USA) (US) University of Lodz / Uniwersytet Łódzki Poland (PL) Universidad de Medellín (UDEM) Colombia (CO) University of Delaware (UDEL) United States (USA) (US)

How to cite

APA:

Glombitza, J., Abdul Halim, A., Abreu, P., Aglietta, M., Allekotte, I., Almeida Cheminant, K.,... Zavrtanik, M. (2025). Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020  eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning. Physical Review D, 111. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.111.022003

MLA:

Glombitza, Jonas, et al. "Measurement of the depth of maximum of air-shower profiles with energies between 1018.5 and 1020  eV using the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory and deep learning." Physical Review D 111 (2025).

BibTeX: Download