Production and processing of graphene and related materials

Backes C, Abdelkader AM, Alonso C, Andrieux-Ledier A, Arenal R, Azpeitia J, Balakrishnan N, Banszerus L, Barjon J, Bartali R, Bellani S, Berger C, Berger R, Ortega MMB, Bernard C, Beton PH, Beyer A, Bianco A, Boggild P, Bonaccorso F, Barin GB, Botas C, Bueno RA, Carriazo D, Castellanos-Gomez A, Christian M, Ciesielski A, Ciuk T, Cole MT, Coleman J, Coletti C, Crema L, Cun H, Dasler D, De Fazio D, Diez N, Drieschner S, Duesberg GS, Fasel R, Feng X, Fina A, Forti S, Galiotis C, Garberoglio G, Garcia JM, Antonio Garrido J, Gibertini M, Goelzhaeuser A, Gomez J, Greber T, Hauke F, Hemmi A, Hernandez-Rodriguez I, Hirsch A, Hodge SA, Huttel Y, Jepsen PU, Jimenez I, Kaiser U, Kaplas T, Kim H, Kis A, Papagelis K, Kostarelos K, Krajewska A, Lee K, Li C, Lipsanen H, Liscio A, Lohe MR, Loiseau A, Lombardi L, Francisca Lopez M, Martin O, Martin C, Martinez L, Angel Martin-Gago J, Ignacio Martinez J, Marzari N, Mayoral A, Mcmanus J, Melucci M, Mendez J, Merino C, Merino P, Meyer A, Miniussi E, Miseikis V, Mishra N, Morandi V, Munuera C, Munoz R, Nolan H, Ortolani L, Ott AK, Palacio I, Palermo V, Parthenios J, Pasternak I, Patane A, Prato M, Prevost H, Prudkovskiy V, Pugno N, Rojo T, Rossi A, Ruffieux P, Samori P, Schue L, Setijadi E, Seyller T, Speranza G, Stampfer C, Stenger I, Strupinski W, Svirko Y, Taioli S, Teo KBK, Testi M, Tomarchio F, Tortello M, Treossi E, Turchanin A, Vazquez E, Villaro E, Whelan PR, Xia Z, Yakimova R, Yang S, Reza Yazdi G, Yim C, Yoon D, Zhang X, Zhuang X, Colombo L, Ferrari AC, Garcia-Hernandez M (2020)

Publication Type: Journal article, Review article

Publication year: 2020

Journal

Book Volume: 7

Journal Issue: 2

DOI: 10.1088/2053-1583/ab1e0a

Abstract

We present an overview of the main techniques for production and processing of graphene and related materials (GRMs), as well as the key characterization procedures. We adopt a 'hands-on' approach, providing practical details and procedures as derived from literature as well as from the authors' experience, in order to enable the reader to reproduce the results. Section I is devoted to 'bottom up' approaches, whereby individual constituents are pieced together into more complex structures. We consider graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) produced either by solution processing or by on-surface synthesis in ultra high vacuum (UHV), as well carbon nanomembranes (CNM). Production of a variety of GNRs with tailored band gaps and edge shapes is now possible. CNMs can be tuned in terms of porosity, crystallinity and electronic behaviour. Section II covers 'top down' techniques. These rely on breaking down of a layered precursor, in the graphene case usually natural crystals like graphite or artificially synthesized materials, such as highly oriented pyrolythic graphite, monolayers or few layers (FL) flakes. The main focus of this section is on various exfoliation techniques in a liquid media, either intercalation or liquid phase exfoliation (LPE). The choice of precursor, exfoliation method, medium as well as the control of parameters such as time or temperature are crucial. A definite choice of parameters and conditions yields a particular material with specific properties that makes it more suitable for a targeted application. We cover protocols for the graphitic precursors to graphene oxide (GO). This is an important material for a range of applications in biomedicine, energy storage, nanocomposites, etc. Hummers' and modified Hummers' methods are used to make GO that subsequently can be reduced to obtain reduced graphene oxide (RGO) with a variety of strategies. GO flakes are also employed to prepare three-dimensional (3d) low density structures, such as sponges, foams, hydro- or aerogels. The assembly of flakes into 3d structures can provide improved mechanical properties. Aerogels with a highly open structure, with interconnected hierarchical pores, can enhance the accessibility to the whole surface area, as relevant for a number of applications, such as energy storage. The main recipes to yield graphite intercalation compounds (GICs) are also discussed. GICs are suitable precursors for covalent functionalization of graphene, but can also be used for the synthesis of uncharged graphene in solution. Degradation of the molecules intercalated in GICs can be triggered by high temperature treatment or microwave irradiation, creating a gas pressure surge in graphite and exfoliation. Electrochemical exfoliation by applying a voltage in an electrolyte to a graphite electrode can be tuned by varying precursors, electrolytes and potential. Graphite electrodes can be either negatively or positively intercalated to obtain GICs that are subsequently exfoliated. We also discuss the materials that can be amenable to exfoliation, by employing a theoretical data-mining approach. The exfoliation of LMs usually results in a heterogeneous dispersion of flakes with different lateral size and thickness. This is a critical bottleneck for applications, and hinders the full exploitation of GRMs produced by solution processing. The establishment of procedures to control the morphological properties of exfoliated GRMs, which also need to be industrially scalable, is one of the key needs. Section III deals with the processing of flakes.

Authors with CRIS profile

Involved external institutions

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) / National Research Council of Italy Italy (IT) Spanish National Research Council / Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Spain (ES) Technical University of Denmark / Danmarks Tekniske Universitet (DTU) Denmark (DK) University of Zurich / Universität Zürich (UZH) Switzerland (CH) Politecnico di Torino Italy (IT) Institute of Electronic Materials Technology (ITME) Poland (PL) Technische Universität Dresden Germany (DE) Universität der Bundeswehr München Germany (DE) University of Eastern Finland Finland (FI) University of Cambridge United Kingdom (GB) Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH) / Ίδρυμα Τεχνολογίας και Έρευνας Greece (GR) Trinity College Dublin Ireland (IE) Eidgenössische Materialprüfungs- und Forschungsanstalt (Empa) / Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science & Technology Switzerland (CH) La Fundación Agencia Aragonesa para la Investigación y el Desarrollo (ARAID) Spain (ES) École Polytechnique - Université Paris-Saclay France (FR) Universität Bielefeld Germany (DE) Linköping University Sweden (SE) University of Nottingham United Kingdom (GB) University of Texas at Dallas (UTD / UT Dallas) United States (USA) (US) Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen Germany (DE) Universidad de Zaragoza Spain (ES) Universität Ulm Germany (DE) University of Grenoble Alpes (UGA) / Université de Grenoble France (FR) Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg Germany (DE) Institut Català de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia (ICN2) Spain (ES) Université de Strasbourg (UDS) France (FR) Aalto University Espoo Finland (FI) Università degli Studi di Trento Italy (IT) University of Patras (UPATRAS) Greece (GR) Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK) (früher: ITC-irst) Italy (IT) Technische Universität Chemnitz Germany (DE) Italian Institute of Technology / Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) Italy (IT) CIC energiGUNE Spain (ES) Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM) Spain (ES) Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) Germany (DE) European Centre for Theoretical Studies in Nuclear Physics and Related Areas (ECT*) Italy (IT) École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Switzerland (CH) AVANZARE Innovacion Tecnologica S.L. Spain (ES) University of Manchester United Kingdom (GB) Universidade Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) Spain (ES) Ikerbasque (Basque Foundation for Science) Spain (ES) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Germany (DE)

How to cite

APA:

Backes, C., Abdelkader, A.M., Alonso, C., Andrieux-Ledier, A., Arenal, R., Azpeitia, J.,... Garcia-Hernandez, M. (2020). Production and processing of graphene and related materials. 2D Materials, 7(2). https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/ab1e0a

MLA:

Backes, Claudia, et al. "Production and processing of graphene and related materials." 2D Materials 7.2 (2020).

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