Real-time tracking of the solidification of tool steel in electron beam powder bed fusion with high-energy X-rays

König HH, Semjatov N, Graf G, Spartacus G, Hegedüs Z, Bidola P, Faria GA, Beckmann F, Hedström P, Körner C, Lindwall G (2026)

Publication Type: Journal article

Publication year: 2026

Journal

Additive Manufacturing Elsevier

Book Volume: 121

Article Number: 105159

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2026.105159

Abstract

The solidification behaviour of a tool steel is investigated during additive manufacturing (AM) with electron-beam powder bed fusion (PBF-EB). Solidification is controlled by thermal conditions and alloy composition. To study the impact of these two factors, high-speed operando X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements of the PBF-EB process are performed over a wide range of processing conditions inducing cooling rates between 1400 K/s and 16000 K/s. The formation and transformation of the high temperature δ-ferrite phase are observed. The results reveal the dependence of the δ-ferrite presence time on cooling rates, providing insight into the impact of processing parameters on the δ-ferrite evolution. Furthermore, multi-component diffusion simulations are related to the experimental conditions accounting for elemental evaporation during PBF-EB processing. The simulations reveal the effect of compositional variations during the process on the solidification behaviour during PBF-EB processing. This work highlights the importance of understanding the interplay between processing conditions and alloy composition in PBF-EB, as well as how the combination of operando XRD with computational thermodynamics and kinetics tools can facilitate parameter and alloy development for the PBF-EB process.

Authors with CRIS profile

Nick Semjatov Lehrstuhl für Werkstoffwissenschaften (Werkstoffkunde und Technologie der Metalle) (WTM) Carolin Körner Lehrstuhl für Werkstoffwissenschaften (Werkstoffkunde und Technologie der Metalle) (WTM)

Involved external institutions

Royal Institute of Technology / Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH) SE Sweden (SE) Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY DE Germany (DE) Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon DE Germany (DE)

How to cite

APA:

König, H.H., Semjatov, N., Graf, G., Spartacus, G., Hegedüs, Z., Bidola, P.,... Lindwall, G. (2026). Real-time tracking of the solidification of tool steel in electron beam powder bed fusion with high-energy X-rays. Additive Manufacturing, 121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2026.105159

MLA:

König, Hans Henrik, et al. "Real-time tracking of the solidification of tool steel in electron beam powder bed fusion with high-energy X-rays." Additive Manufacturing 121 (2026).

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